the law of knowledge

The Law of Knowledge
by Walter Dolen

Awareness of the "Law of Knowledge" leads to tuned understanding

Law of Knowledge
by Walter Dolen

Generally. Knowledge of A is dependent upon knowledge of non-A. Or to know A you must also know non-A. Or the knowledge of A presupposes knowledge of non-A. Or you know what is A because you know what is non-A (see notes below for more details).

Opposite qualities. Particularly, in the case of opposite qualities (light and darkness, etc.) you must know both qualities to know either: you must compare each with the other to know either (see notes below for more details).

The easiest way to explain this law is to manifest how it works with opposite qualities. In our notes section we will give more details to understand the Law of Knowledge in a more general way.

Blind and Sighted: To begin amplifying on this law we will use the example of a blind person. We want you to try to empathize with a person that was totally blind from birth. Try to put yourself in such a person’s mind. Close your eyes and imagine yourself as being blind. Now such a person has never seen light. Light is the quality that allows one’s eyes to see objects. Without light no one would see even if they had perfect eyes. Light is the quality that the totally blind person cannot perceive or comprehend.

If you had never seen light, how would someone explain light to you? What choice adjectives would describe light to someone who has never seen light? To explain anything to someone who has never seen it, you have to use comparison, and say it is like this or like that. But there is no comparative quality in the universe that compares with light. It would be impossible for someone to explain light to you, let alone sight, if you had never seen light.

Yet at the same time one truly doesn’t know what darkness is until one has seen light. The very definition of dark is: "without light." Darkness means without light as light means "without darkness." Each definition is dependent on its opposite quality. A definition of something is a statement of the knowledge of that thing. To know light or darkness by their very definition presupposes knowledge of each other. A blind person in order to know what darkness is, would have to see light. He knows darkness only if he sees light, for it is only then that he will understand what people were talking about when they spoke of darkness. The only reason that you can close your eyes, and call the result darkness, is because you have seen light. One cannot know darkness or light unless one has seen both and compared both qualities with each other. Thus, specifically in the case of opposite qualities, your knowledge of light ("A") is dependent upon your knowledge of darkness (opposite-"A"), and vice versa. Because they are opposite qualities, you must know both to know either quality, but in order to know either quality, you must compare each with the other.

Sound and Silence: The same applies for sound and silence. If you had never heard sound, how would you know what silence was like? Silence and sound are opposite qualities as light and darkness are opposite qualities. You must know both to know either, and you must compare each with the other to know either. Since these two qualities are interrelated, one has to know both to know one. The very basic definition of sound ("without silence") and silence ("without sound") need the opposite quality to define it. To know sound or silence by their very basic definition presupposes knowledge of each other.

Life and Death: Further, one doesn’t know what life is until he has seen death. To have knowledge of life you must have knowledge of death. One is very aware of life only if one has seen or become aware of death.

Knowledge of Relative Values

Hot and Cold: The same can be said about hot and cold, except these two qualities are relative qualities. "Hot" and "cold" are relative opposite qualities. One knows something is cold only so far as he has something hot to compare it with. You can place your hand into a container of water that is 90 degrees and it will feel warm to you. But if you place your hand into a container that is 110 degrees and keep it there for a while, and then place it again into the container of water of 90 degrees, the 90 degree water will then feel cool while before it felt warm. Your knowledge of hot or cold is obtained through contrast and comparison of both qualities. Knowledge of hot or cold presupposes knowledge of the other quality.

Good and Evil: It follows then that since good and evil are opposite qualities, then to know good you must know evil, but also to know evil, you must know good. But in order to "know" either quality you must compare both qualities with each other. Conceptually, good and evil are opposites, yet they are also relative in nature: there is extreme evil and lesser evil; there is the highly good and mild forms of good.

Some Crime v. Much Crime: The water of 90 degrees can be compared to a town with 50 murders per year, while the water of 110 degrees may be the same town, but with 500 murders per year. When the town had 50 murders a year, you felt it was bad, but when it became 500 murders a year, you could look back at the 50 murders per year as "the good old days." Here is an example of relative evil. An example could also be given about relative good. So there is relativity to good and evil. To have real knowledge of either you must have knowledge of both.

Right and Left: The right side has no meaning unless there be a left side. You don’t know what the meaning of right is until you know about left; you don’t know what left is until you know what about right. You need knowledge about both to know either. Are you beginning to comprehend it? You don’t know something is "high" unless you know there is something "lower." You don’t know something is "low" unless you know something is "higher." You don’t know a "plus" quality until you know its "minus" quality. You don’t know a "minus" quality unless you know its "plus" quality. You don’t know light if you don’t know darkness. But you can know light if you know darkness. You don’t know or realize harmony, if you have never known confusion.

Appreciation and Knowledge: Think on what is being said. If you had always lived in an environment where there was no confusion, where there was harmony, would you realize the goodness of that harmonic environment? Would harmony mean anything to you in such a harmonic environment? Can you really appreciate harmony if you have never lived in confusion?

If you had good vision for forty years, and then lost your sight, you would truly know the value of sight, as does a blind person who miraculously gains his sight. But how does someone after he loses his sight, come to appreciate the sight he once had? [This actually more difficult since the few totally blind persons from birth who gained their sight had/have trouble "learning" to see since sight is also a learnt ability.]

Appreciation: What does it mean to appreciate something? Webster’s Dictionary says that to appreciate something one must: "recognize it gratefully; estimate its worth; estimate it rightly; be fully aware of it; and notice it with discrimination." Thus, when one comes to appreciate something (especially if it is good), one in fact comes to know that thing. To appreciate something is to know it; to know something is to appreciate it.

When one loses a loved one, one by the loss of the loved one knows the worth of the loved one. The same with good. One comes to know the worth of good only after he has lived in evil.

How can you know joy, until you have lived sorrow? How can you know good until you know evil? How can you really be happy unless you've been sad and reached the place of happiness? Opposite qualities need to be compared to each other to know either.

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Notes and more detail on the Law of Knowledge

More Details on the Law of Knowledge: More specifically knowledge of non-opposite qualities

Generally. Knowledge of A is dependent upon knowledge of non-A. Or to know A you must also know non-A. Or the knowledge of A presupposes knowledge of non-A. Or you know what is A because you know what is non-A. In order to "know" A you must compare A with non-A. Correlatively, the knowledge of A is proportional to the knowledge of non-A; or the more you know about non-A the more you understand the uniqueness of A; or the extent of your knowledge of A is dependent on the extent of your knowledge of non-A; or the more you compare A with non-A the more you know A.

Opposite qualities. Particularly, in the case of opposite qualities (light and darkness, etc.) you must know both qualities to know either: you must compare each with the other to know either. Thus, in the case of opposite qualities: to know light ("A") you must compare "light" with non-light (non-"A"); "darkness" (the opposite of light) is included in what is non-light (non-"A"); and it is with the knowledge of "darkness" and the knowledge of "light" that we are able to know either "light" or "darkness;" but to know light ("A") you must compare light with "darkness" (opposite of "A" or opp-"A") and vice versa — you must know both qualities to know either.

So far we have mostly talked about so-called opposite qualities such as light and darkness or good and evil. But the Law of Knowledge not only explains knowledge of opposite qualities, but also knowledge of everything capable of being known.

A Child Learns: One way to understand the Law of Knowledge is to understand how a child learns. Children’s simple generalizations reflect lack of differentiation. That is, a child’s wrong generalization about A (cow) reflects lack of knowledge of the difference between a cow and all that is not a cow (non-A) such as other four legged animals.

A child when he is first learning about four legged animals sometimes may mix up a cow and a horse, or a cow and a deer, or even a cow and a dog. This is because the child does not know what a cow is not. When parents first begin telling their child what a cow is, they point to a cow and say, "that is a cow." The child with the aid of other knowledge in his memory and his senses "sees" this living animal with four legs. Depending on how many other four legged animals are pointed out to him, he may mix the cow up with any or all other four legged animals.

After a cow is pointed out to him he may call a horse a cow, after all, to the child a horse is a four legged living animal (not a two legged animal or a toy animal or stuffed animal) just like the one pointed out earlier by his parents. But the child is wrong. This four legged animal is a horse, not a cow. The child fails to differentiate between a cow and a horse. How does the parent correct the child? The parent says, "no, it is not a cow, it is a horse." The parent is telling the child what a cow is not. The parent by telling the child what is not a cow is helping the child to learn what is a cow. Normally, after the child learns that a horse is not a cow, he doesn’t call a horse a cow again. But the child may call a deer or other four legged animals a cow. When the child does this he is again corrected, "no, it is not a cow, it is a deer." The child has learned something else is not a cow (A); he has learned one more of the non-A’s (all else besides cows). The more the child learns about other four legged animals not being cows, the better he is able to understand what a cow is. A cow is a four legged animal of a certain size (a cow is not a dog because for one thing a cow is bigger than a dog, etc.), but it is not any other four legged animal: it is not a dog, it is not a horse, it is not a deer, it is not an elephant, it is not a bear, etc.

But further the child from other knowledge knows a living cow is not a mountain, it is not dead (not a dead toy, not a dead stuffed animal, etc.), it is not a rock, it is not the sky, it is not a two legged animal, it is not an ant, it is not a fish, it is not fog, it is not a color, it is not a quality like "good," it is not a plant, it is not water, etc. The child knows more what a cow is, by the more he knows what a cow is not. Thus, the knowledge of a cow (A) is dependent on the knowledge of what a cow is not (non-A); or the child knows more about what is a cow (A), by the more he knows what is a cow is not (non-A).

Let’s take another example, the color green. The more we know what the color green is not the more we know the uniqueness of the color green. The only way to point green out is to show what green is not. Since most of us know what the color green is (because we know what green is not), we will again try to understand how a child learns about the color green.

The knowledge of GREEN (A) is dependent upon the knowledge of all that is not green (non-A).

First "green" is a subdivision of color. Before a child can learn what the color "green" is, he must know what is color. In order for a child to understand "color" his parents tell him, "that thing is the color red, that thing is the color blue, that thing is the color orange, that thing is the color green, that thing is the color ...." Along the line of learning "color" the child comes to understand (through comparison) what "color" is not: the color blue on a wall is not the wall, it is not the material that makes up the wall such as wall board, or wood studs, or nails, etc., but the quality on the wall that we call "color" is the color of the wall. A child learns what color is by understanding what color is not. So before a parent can make a child understand what the "color" green is, the child has to understand what "color" is, by understanding what "color" is not.

Now assuming that the child knows what "color" is we will continue:

We know GREEN by knowing what is not green (non-A). Thus the child comes to know GREEN by knowing what is not green.

Green Is Not:

More generally green is not: a tree, a bush, a rock, an animal, a fish, a man, the universe, the sun, the moon, our parents, a car, a road, atoms, space, form or shape, relative position in space, time, a dimension, or any other thing or quality except for a quality we call "color."

More specifically green is not: red, blue, orange, purple, or any other color, but the color we call green.

To summarize, GREEN is A; GREEN is not non-A. We know GREEN (A) because we know what GREEN is not (it is not non-A).



[Copyright (c) 1989-2009 by Walter Dolen] First published in early versions of the BeComingOne Papers in the God Papers.

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a plea to new law student

A Plea to New Law Students Wednesday, Sep 16 2009

Uncategorized Rob Wiltbank 10:32 am

Among other things, I am Firearms Instructor.

When I tell people this, it’s usually a 50/50 split as to whether their eyes are filled with fear or interest. Minds have been conditioned by the media and social biases that “Guns are bad.” When I counsel students at the college where I work who are starting their education in legal studies, I ask them a few questions (this works a bit better during an election year):

1) Do you think guns should be banned?
2) The guy who held the sign “You’re a Liar” in the front row of an Obama/Bush rally — should he have been escorted out?
3) Should a person be allowed to wear their pants low so you can see their boxers?
4) Are DUI checkpoints a good idea?

Each of these issues deals with specific individual freedoms guaranteed by our Constitution, some of which have been compromised, but all of which usually (8 times out of 10) solicit an expected knee-jerk response from the person I’m asking. So, here is my plea to you — the incoming 1L class:

Wait. When you’re asked a question such as the one above, bite your tongue and prevent yourself from giving the “right” answer… The “right” answer being common sense. Instead, take a few moments and think, not just about the rights of the people and public safety, but of the rights of the individual. Remember that “the people” are comprised of individuals and each of us has inalienable rights — remember your Con Law case studies… Once you’ve taken everything into account, then give the “correct” answer.

Express. When you have a spirited debate, pot shots are bound to happen, but I beg that, while you should debate and defend your position with zeal, that you do so as civily as possible. Resorting to foul language can instantly destroy any credibility you may have built and you will most certainly loose any respect gained by your opponent.

Love. Our Constitution is a wonderfully glorious thing — it laid the foundations for our individual freedoms and our way of living. If, at this very moment, you believe that jump-out squads and curfews are good for public safety; if you believe someone who says, “Fuck” in public should be cited with disorderly conduct; if you think that police should be allowed to require you to show them your ID at will… I beg of you to learn all of the reasons to hate these ideas and love your Constitution and freedoms it provides you. Research the case history and learn WHY obvious criminals are let go because an officer illegally siezed a weapon and cherrish that. Understand that the laws that let suspects off on “technicalities” aren’t just there for them, but that every single day they protect people like you.

Once you’ve done this, if you still believe your previous notions were correct then, by all means, return to them. You’ll go back, not only with an appreciation for the other side, but you’ll be better able to defend your position because you will understand your opponent and their line of reasoning.

Good luck on your Fall semester, my friends… keep up with your reading and remember to challenge your mind every single day.

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live of a law student

Life of a Law Student
The Art of the Law School Transfer Saturday, Sep 19 2009

Uncategorized Neil 6:05 pm

As many of you know, I transferred law schools after my 1L year. Many law students consider transferring after their 1L year, generally to move to a higher ranked school.

I transferred because I was marrying someone out of state (and dropping a little in the law school rankings), so I didn’t have the same academic pressure. Unfortunately, that transfer process did not go smoothly for me.

Thankfully, a LoaLS listener has written a comprehensive guide on transferring, appropriately entitled The Art of the Law School Transfer. I provided my narrative as an epilogue, and the book is now available! The author was kind enough to send me a review copy.

Here’s my official “review” of The Art of the Law School Transfer: “Any law student that isn’t 100% satisfied with their current school should invest the time and money to read this book. Well-written, practical, and comprehensive, The Art of the Law School Transfer walks you through the entire tightrope that is transferring: from whether you should consider transferring to how to succeed at your new school.”

You can buy The Art of the Law School Transfer via Amazon.com

- Neil

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ഒബ്ജെച്ടിവേസ് ക്രിമിനല്‍ ലോ

Objectives of Criminal Law

Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious potential consequences or for failure to abide by its rules.Every crime is composed of may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes.Physical or may be imposed such as or although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. Individuals may be in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Confinement may be solitary. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.Government supervision may be imposed, including house arrest, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines as part of a parole or probation regimen. also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a person convicted of a crime.

Five objectives are widely accepted for enforcement of the criminal law by punishments: retribution, deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation and restitution. Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed on each.

• Retribution - Criminals ought to suffer in some way. This is the most widely seen goal. Criminals have taken improper advantage, or inflicted unfair detriment, upon others and consequently, the criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to "balance the scales." People submit to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if people contravene these laws, they surrender the rights granted to them by the law. Thus, one who murders may be murdered himself. A related theory includes the idea of "righting the balance."

• Deterrence - Individual deterrence is aimed toward the specific offender. The aim is to impose a sufficient penalty to discourage the offender from criminal behavior. General deterrence aims at society at large. By imposing a penalty on those who commit offenses, other individuals are discouraged from committing those offenses.
• Incapacitation - Designed simply to keep criminals away from society so that the public is protected from their misconduct. This is often achieved through prison sentences today. The death penalty or banishment have served the same purpose.
• Rehabilitation - Aims at transforming an offender into a valuable member of society. Its primary goal is to prevent further offense by convincing the offender that their conduct was wrong.
• Restitution - This is a victim-oriented theory of punishment. The goal is to repair, through state authority, any hurt inflicted on the victim by the offender. For example, one who embezzles will be required to repay the amount improperly acquired. Restitution is commonly combined with other main goals of criminal justice and is closely related to concepts in the civil law.

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ഗുനുന്ഗ് കിദുല്‍ രേഗേന്‍സി

Gunung Kidul Regency

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This article does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2009)

Gunung Kidul is the name of a regency - a well known cultural region - and the town located in the province of Yogyakarta (special region), Indonesia. Like many regions on the island of Java, it is densely populated with roughly 1,600 people per square kilometer. The regency is bordered by the city of Yogyakarta to the north west, the regency of Bantul to the west, the regency of Sleman to the north west and the Indian Ocean to the south.

It occurs on a karst region, and the southern coastal edge is rough and wild but exotic with several beautiful beaches: Baron, Kukup, Krakal, Drini, Sepanjang, Sundak, Siung, Wediombo and Sadeng. Some of these beaches provide fresh fish and other sea product from local fisherman. The most notable of all is Baron beach, it provides a park next to the beach, surrounded by seafood restaurant and hostel. It has a fresh-fish market in the east side of the beach. In the west side of the beach, there is a few-hundred-metre river coming out from an almost sea-level cave on the side of western ridge. The beach itself is khaki-colored and sprawled with traditional fisherman's boat. Beside the main beach, there is a kilometre of almost untouched white sand beach lying beyond its eastern ridge. It can be reach by small hike; there is a rest area with a beautiful view on top of the eastern hill. Gunung Kidul area in earlier times heavily forested - but most of the teak forests have been removed - and many reforestation projects occur on the western edge of the regency. The regency has been subject to extensive drought and famine within the last hundred years.

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ത്രാന്‍സ്പോര്‍റ്റേന്‍ ഓഫ് യോഗ്യകര്ട സിറ്റി

Transportation

Trans Jogja Bus. A bus rapid transit system in Yogyakarta city

Yogyakarta is served by Adisucipto International Airport which connects the city with some other major cities in Indonesia, such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Bali, Makassar, Balikpapan, Banjarmasin, and Pontianak. It also connects the city with Singapore (operated by Garuda Indonesia) and (operated by AirAsia and Kuala Lumpur (operated by AirAsia and Malaysia Airlines).

The city is located on one of the two major railway lines across Java between Jakarta / Bandung and Surabaya. It has two passenger railway stations, Tugu Railway Station serves business and executive class trains while Lempuyangan Station serves economy class trains. Both stations are located in downtown Yogyakarta city.

The city has an extensive system of public city buses, and is a major destination for inter-city buses to elsewhere on Java or Bali, as well as taxis, andongs, and becaks. Motorbikes are by far the most commonly used personal transportation, but an increasing number of residents own automobiles.

Starting from early 2008, the city has operated a bus rapid transit system called Trans Jogja. This system is modeled after TransJakarta. But unlike Trans Jakarta, there is no particular lane for Trans Jogja buses, they run on main streets. Currently there are six lines of Trans Jogja service, with routes throughout main streets of Yogyakarta, which some overlap one another. The lines extend from Jombor bus station in the north as far as Giwangan main bus terminal in the south and Prambanan bus shelter in the east via Adisucipto International Airport. Trans Jogja has now become a new trademark of Yogyakarta and frequently used by local citizens and tourists alike.

In a recent forum discussion on long-term future transportation plans in Yogyakarta held in Universitas Gadjah Mada, Head of Yogyakarta region transportation master plan team, Prof Ahmad Munawar, said that, in 2016 various modern transport modes include monorail, aerobus, and tram will begin operating in the city and the region.^[1]

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student

United Kingdom and Ireland

In the past, the term "student" was reserved for people studying at University level in the U.K. Children studying at school were called pupils or schoolchildren (or schoolboys or schoolgirls). However, the American-English use of the word "student" to include pupils of all ages, even at elementary level, is now spreading to Britain, as also other places where British English is primarily used, such as Australia and Singapore. In South Africa, the term "learner" is also used.

In England and Wales, teenagers who attend a college or secondary school for further education are typically called "sixth formers". If pupils follow the average pattern of school attendance, pupils will be in the "lower sixth" between the ages of 16 and 17, and the "upper sixth" between 17 and 18. They "go up" to University after the upper sixth.

In Scotland pupils sit Highers at the end of fifth year (when aged 16–17) after which it is possible for them to gain entry to university. However, many do not achieve the required grades and remain at school for sixth year. Even among those that do achieve the necessary grades it is common to remain at school and undertake further study (i.e. other subjects or Advanced Highers) and then start university at the same time as their friends and peers.

At universities in the United Kingdom and Ireland the term "fresher" is used to describe new students who are just beginning their first year. Although it is not unusual to call someone a fresher after their first few weeks at University, they are typically referred to as first years. There is little derogatory connotation to this name in the UK, except for an occasional reference to "freshers" in a tone that implies naivety. More commonly, it will be used in a kindly fashion. For instance, a University official might ask a student if they are a fresher without any hint of a put down.

The term, "first year" is the more commonly used and connotation free term for students in their first year. The week at the start of a new year is called "Freshers' Week" or "Welcome Week", with a programme of special events to welcome new students. An undergraduate in the last year of study before graduation is generally known as a "finalist", or simply a third year (in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland ) or a fourth year (in Scotland and the Republic of Ireland).

The ancient Scottish University of St Andrews uses the terms "bejant" for a first year (from the French "bec-jaune" – "yellow beak", "fledgling"). Second years are called "semi-bejants", third years are known as "tertians", and fourth years, or others in their final year of study, are called "magistrands".

For school pupils, first of all is primary school and it starts off with an optional "nursery" year followed by Reception (similar to Kindergarten) and then move on to "year one, year two" and so on until "year six". In state schools, children join secondary school when they are 11–12 years old in what used to be called "first form" and is now known as "year 7". They go up to year 11 (formerly "fifth form") and then join the sixth form, either at the same school or at a separate Sixth form college. A student entering a private, fee-paying school (usually at age 13) would join the "third form" — equivalent to year 9. Many schools have an alternate name for first years, some with a derogatory basis, but in others acting merely as a description — for example "shells" (non-derogatory) or "grubs" (derogatory).

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Botany

Banana tree (Musa sapientum) from 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica

Botanically, the bananas are placed in the genus Musa in the family Musaceae. The APG II system, of 2003 (unchanged from the APG system, 1998), assigns Musaceae to the order Zingiberales in the clade commelinids in the monocotyledonous flowering plants.

The banana plant is a pseudostem that grows to 6 to 7.6 metres (20 to 25 ft) tall, growing from a corm. Leaves are spirally arranged and may grow 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) long and 60 cm (2.0 ft) wide.^[4] The banana plant is the largest of all herbaceous flowering plants.^[5] The large leaves grow whole, but are easily torn by the wind, resulting in the familiar frond look.^[6]

A single, sterile, male banana flower, also known as the banana heart is normally produced by each stem (though on rare occasions more can be produced—a single plant in the Philippines has five^[7]). Banana hearts are used as a vegetable in Southeast Asia, steamed, in salads, or eaten raw.^[8] The female flowers are produced further up the stem and produce the actual fruit without requiring fertilization. The fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".^[9] In cultivated varieties, the seeds have degenerated nearly to non-existence; their remnants are tiny black specks in the interior of the fruit. The ovary is inferior to the flower; because of their stiff stems and the positioning of the ovary and flower, bananas grow sticking up, not hanging down.

Some sources assert that the genus of the banana, Musa, is named for Antonio Musa, physician to the Emperor Augustus.^[10] Others say that Linnaeus, who gave the genus its name in 1750, simply adapted an Arabic word for banana, mauz.^[11] The word banana itself comes from the Arabic word banan, which means "finger".^[11] The genus contains numerous species; several produce edible fruit, while others are cultivated as ornamentals.^[12]

Properties

Banana, raw, edible parts

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	371 kJ (89 kcal)
Carbohydrates	22.84 g
Sugars	12.23 g
Dietary fiber	2.6 g
Fat	0.33 g
Protein	1.09 g
Vitamin A equiv.	3 μg (0%)
Thiamine (Vit. B1)	0.031 mg (2%)
Riboflavin (Vit. B2)	0.073 mg (5%)
Niacin (Vit. B3)	0.665 mg (4%)
Pantothenic acid (B5)	0.334 mg (7%)
Vitamin B6	0.367 mg (28%)
Folate (Vit. B9)	20 μg (5%)
Vitamin C	8.7 mg (15%)
Calcium	5 mg (1%)
Iron	0.26 mg (2%)
Magnesium	27 mg (7%
Phosphorus	22 mg (3%)
Potassium	358 mg (8%)
Zinc	0.15 mg (1%)
One banana is 100–150 g. Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Bananas come in a variety of sizes and colors when ripe, including yellow, purple, and red. Bananas can be eaten raw though some varieties are generally cooked first. Depending upon cultivar and ripeness, the flesh can vary in taste from starchy to sweet, and texture from firm to mushy. Unripe or green bananas and plantains are used as an ingredient in various dishes, such as in curries and stews, and are the staple starch of many tropical populations. Banana sap is extremely sticky and can be used as a practical adhesive. Sap can be obtained from the pseudostem, from the fruit peelings, or from the fruit flesh.

Most production for local sale is of green cooking bananas and plantains, as ripe dessert bananas are easily damaged while being transported to market. Even when transported only within their country of origin, ripe bananas suffer a high rate of damage and loss.^{[citation needed]}

The commercial dessert cultivars most commonly eaten in temperate countries (species Musa acuminata or the hybrid Musa × paradisiaca, a cultigen) are imported in large quantities from the tropics. They are popular in part because, being a non-seasonal crop, they are available fresh year-round. In global commerce, by far the most important of these banana cultivars is 'Cavendish', which accounts for the vast bulk of bananas exported from the tropics. The Cavendish gained popularity in the 1950s after the previously mass produced cultivar, Gros Michel, became commercially unviable due to Panama disease, a fungus which attacks the roots of the banana plant.

The most important properties making 'Cavendish' the main export banana are related to transport and shelf life rather than taste; major commercial cultivars rarely have a superior flavor^{[citation needed]} compared to the less widespread cultivars. Export bananas are picked green, and then usually ripened in ripening rooms when they arrive in their country of destination. These are special rooms made air-tight and filled with ethylene gas to induce ripening. Bananas can be ordered by the retailer "ungassed", however, and may show up at the supermarket still fully green. While these bananas will ripen more slowly, the flavor will be notably richer^{[citation needed]}, and the banana peel can be allowed to reach a yellow/brown speckled phase, and yet retain a firm flesh inside. Thus, shelf life is somewhat extended.

The vivid yellow color normally associated with supermarket bananas is in fact a side-effect of the artificial ripening process. Cavendish bananas that have been allowed to ripen naturally on the plant have a greenish-yellow appearance which changes to a brownish-yellow as they ripen further. Although both the flavor and texture of "tree ripened" bananas is generally regarded as superior to any type green-picked fruit, once natural ripening has commenced the shelf life is typically only 7–10 days, making commercial distribution impractical. For most people the only practical means of obtaining such fruit is growing it themselves, however this is also somewhat problematic, as the bananas all tend to ripen at once and have very poor keeping properties.

The flavor and texture of bananas are also affected by the temperature at which they ripen. Bananas are refrigerated to between 13.5 and 15 °C (56 and 59 °F) during transportation. At lower temperatures, the ripening of bananas permanently stalls, and the bananas will eventually turn gray as cell walls break down. The skins of ripe bananas will quickly turn black in the 4°C environment of a domestic refrigerator, although the fruit inside remains unaffected.

The banana flavor is due, amongst others, to isoamyl acetate which is one of the main constituents of banana oil.

It should be noted that Musa × paradisiaca is also the generic name for the common plantain, a coarser and starchier variant not to be confused with Musa acuminata or the Cavendish variety.

The leaves of the banana plant are large, flexible, and waterproof. They are used many ways, including as umbrellas and to wrap food for cooking or storage.^[13] Banana leaves are also used to serve food in India and other Asian countries.

Banana chips are a snack produced from dehydrated or fried banana or plantain slices, which have a dark brown color and an intense banana taste. Unlike other fruits, it is difficult to extract juice from bananas because when compressed a banana simply turns to pulp.

Seeded bananas (Musa balbisiana), the forerunner of the common domesticated banana,^[14] are sold in markets in Indonesia.

In India, juice is extracted from the corm and used as a home remedy for the treatment of jaundice, sometimes with the addition of honey, and for kidney stones.^[15]

Ripened bananas (left, under sunlight) fluoresce in blue when exposed to UV light.

A 2008 study reported that ripe bananas exhibit a blue fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet light. This property is attributed to the degradation of chlorophyll giving rise to the accumulation of a fluorescent product in the skin of the fruit. The chlorophyll breakdown product is stabilized by a propionate ester group. Banana-tree leaves also fluoresce in the same way. Green bananas do not show any sign of fluorescence. The study suggested that this allows animals which are capable of seeing in the ultraviolet spectrum to detect ripened bananas.^[16]

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KATA PENGANTAR

 

      Puji syukur penulis ucapkan atas kehadirat Tuhan Yang Maha Esa,yang telah melimpahkan rahmat,hidayah,serta karunianya sehingga penulis dapat menyelesaikan karya tulis ini yang berjudul “Perbandingan Lembaga Negara Dalam Kewenangan Pembentukan Peraturan Perundang-Undangan Menurut Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 dan Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 Setelah Amandemen ke- Empat”.

Karya tulis ini merupakan salah satu syarat untuk menyempurnakan nilai semester berdasarkan ketentuan dari dosen yang bersangkutan. Penulis menyadari bahwa dalam penulisan makalah ini tentu banyak kekurangan yang dapat ditemui,untuk itu penulis mengucapkan mohon maaf dan semoga karya tulis ini dapat bermanfaat bagi kita semua dan dalam dunia pendidikan,khususnya Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta. untuk itu penulis mengharapkan kritik dan saran yang bersifat membangun demi kesempurnaan makalah ini.

        Akhirnya kepada Allah SWT penulis berserah diri semoga makalah ini di Ridhai-Nya dan bermanfaat bagi kita semua.

 

 

Yogyakarta,    Januari 2009

 

 

                                                                                      

                                                                                                    penulis

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BAB I

                                                                  PENDAHULUAN

 

1.1                Latar Belakang Masalah

Latar belakang penulis menulis mengenai “Perbandingan Lembaga Negara dalam Kewenangan Pembentukan Peraturan Perundang-Undangan Menurut Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 dan Undang-undang Dasar 1945 Setelah Amandeman Keempat” adalah, yang pertama karena tema tersebut telah ditentukan oleh tim pengajar penulis untuk dianalisa dan diterbitkan dalam bentuk makalah. Dan penulis sendiri sangat tertarik pada topik ini agar bisa memahami lebih dalam Perbandingan lembaga Negara dalam Kewenangan Pembentukan Peraturan Perundang-Undangan Menurut Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 dan Undang-undang Dasar 1945 Setelah Amandeman Keempat. Oleh karena itu didalam makalah ini tim penulis membahas mengenai perbandingan lembaga negara dalam kewenangan pembentukan peraturan perundang-undangan menurut Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 dan Undang-undang Dasar 1945 setelah Amandeman Keempat, hal-hal yang berkaitan, perbandingannya, serta teori-teori yang terkait.

 

1.2                Ruang Lingkup

Dalam Penulisan makalah ini, Penulis membatasi ruang lingkup penulisan hanya mengenai perbandingan lembaga negara dalam kewenangan pembentukan peraturan perundang-undangan menurut undang-undang dasar 1945 dan undang-undang dasar 1945 setelah amandeman keempat seperti yang sudah disebutkan pada Daftar isi, sehingga hasil pembahasannya nanti tidak menyimpang dari topik sebenarnya.

 

1.3                Tujuan Penulisan

1.                   Menyampaikan penjelasan mengenai perbandingan lembaga negara dalam kewenangan pembentukan peraturan perundang-undangan menurut undang-undang dasar 1945 dan undang-undang Dasar 1945 setelah Amandeman keempat. Selain itu makalah ini bertujuan untuk menyelesaikan Tugas mata kuliah Ilmu Perundang-undangan.

2.                   Mengukur sejauh mana kemampuan Penulis dalam penulisan makalah dan mengkaji masalah perbandingan lembaga negara dalam kewenangan pembentukan peraturan perundang-undangan menurut undang-undang dasar 1945 dan Undang-undang Dasar 1945 Setelah Amandeman Keempat.

 

1.4                Pokok Permasalahan

1.             Apakah yang dimaksud dengan lembaga negara?

2.             Bagaimanakah perubahan UUD 1945 setelah Amandemen keempat?

    3.             Bagaimanakah analisis perbandingan UUD 1945 sebelum dan sesudah amandemen keempat?

                               

1.5                Pembatasan Masalah

1.             Pengertian Lembaga Negara          

2.             Perbandingan lembaga Negara dalam Kewenangan Pembentukan Peraturan PerUUan

3.             Analisa Perbandingan Lembaga Negara dalam Kewenangan Pembentukan Peraturan PerUUan sebelum dan sesudah Amandemen Keempat

 

1.6                Metode Penelitian

1.            Studi Pustaka.

2.             Media Elektronik (internet)

 

1.7                Manfaat Penulisan

1.             Dapat menambah pengetahuan.

2.             Melatih untuk mengidentifikasikan suatu permasalahan.

3.             Melatih mencari solusi dari suatu permasalahan.

4..            Sebagai salah satu syarat agar mendapatkan nilai semester.

5.              Dapat dijadikan sebagai bahan masukan bagi mahasiswa Universitas    Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta (UMY) sebagai bacaan khususnya tentang “Perbandingan Lembaga Negara dalam Kewenangan Pembentukan Peraturan Perundang-Undangan Menurut Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 dan Undang-undang Dasar 1945 Setelah Amandeman Keempat”

 

 

 

 

BAB II

 

ISI

 

                Sebelumnya, dalam hal ini penulis akan membahas mengenai kewenangan lembaga negara dalam pembentukan peraturan perundang-undangan (formell gezets), yaitu lembaga DPR, Presiden, dan DPD. Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat dalam makalah ini tidak penulis singgung karena tidak mempunyai kewenangan dalam pembentukan peraturan perundang-undangan, dikarenakan Undang-Undang Dasar yang dihasilkan MPR merupakan staatsfundamentalnorm (pada pembukaan UUD 1945) dan staatsgrundgezets (pada batang tubuh UUD 1945), yang bukan merupakan formell gezets.

 

Negara republik Indonesia didirikan atas dasar teori bernegara Indonesia yang tumbuh dari kehidupan kemasyarakatan dan kenegaraan bangsa Indonesia sendiri. Sesuai dengan Undang-Undang Dasar 1945, Indonesia ialah suatu negara yang berdasarkan atas hukum (rechtsstaat), dengan pengertian bahwa pola yang diambil tidak menyimpang dari negara berdasarkan hukum pada umumnya, namun disesuaikan dengan keadaan di Indonesia, dengan menggunakan ukuran baik pandangan hidup maupun pandangan bernegara bangsa Indonesia.

 

Apabila kita simak ketentuan-ketentuan dalam Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 beserta penjelasannya mengenai sistem pemerintahan negara  yang menetapkan bahwa Presiden sebagai Mandataris MPR wajib menjalankan GBHN yang telah ditetapkan oleh MPR, dan Presiden mempunyai kekuasaan membentuk Undang-undang dengan persetujuan DPR.

Berdasarkan ketentuan-ketentuan dalam UUD 1945, pemegang kekuasaan di Indonesia adalah :

-                      kekuasaan eksekutif, dipegang oleh Presiden

-                      Kekuasaan legislatif, dipegang oleh Presiden dengan persetujuan DPR

-                      Kekuasaan yudikatif, dipegang oleh Mahkamah Agung dan Badan-badan Peradilan lain.

 

Dalam kekuasaan legislatif, Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat menyerahkan pelaksanaannya kepada Presiden dan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat yang, bahwa kedua lembaga ini dalam membuat Undang-undang harus bekerja sama.

 

Kekuasaan legislatif ini diberikan berdasarkan prinsip opdracht van bevoegheid, dan ini membawa konsekuensi logis bahwa harus ada pertanggungan jawab dari badan legislatif kepada Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat sebagai Mandataris adalah bahwa Presiden dapat dipecat sebelum masa jabatannya habis.

 

2.1. Analisa Perubahan Mengenai Kewenangan Presiden

 

2.1.1 Sebelum Amandemen

 

Pasal 5

(1)         Presiden memegan kekuasaan membentuk undang-undang dengan persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.

(2)         Presiden menetapkan peraturan pemerintah untuk menjalankan undang-undang sebagaimana mestinya.

 

 

Kekuasaan Presiden dalam bidang legislatif merupakan “partner” bagi Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, yang artinya Presiden bekerja sama dengan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat dalam tugas legislatif yang antaranya adalah :

a.                   membuat Undang-undang

b.                   Menetapkan APBN

 

Walaupun kedudukan kedua lembaga itu sama dan sederajat, namun perumusan pasal di atas menempatkan Presiden pada peranannya yang lebih menonjol dari pada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat dalam tugasnya di bidang legislatif. Membuat Undang-undang pada hakekatnya adalah membua suatu kebijaksanaan umum yang dilakukan oleh Presiden, karena dalam penyelenggaraan pemerintahan itu Presidenlah yang akhirnya bertanggung jawab kepada Majelis, maka kedudukan Presiden dalam praktek lebih menonjol dari Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.

 

Dari pasal 5 ayat (1) UUD 45 sebelum Amandemen, dapat ditarik 2 (dua) kesimpulan, yaitu :

 

a.       Presiden pemegang kekuasaan pembentukan Undang-undang dengan persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.

 

Dalam pasal 5 ayat (1) UUD 1945 dikemukakan bahwa :

“Presiden memegang kekuasaan membentuk Undang-undang dengan persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.” Sedangkan dalam penjelasan mengenai pasal 5 ayat (1) UUD 1945 dinyatakan sebagai berikut : “Kecuali executive power, Presiden bersama-sama dengan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat menjalanan legislative power dalam Negara.” Apabila kita membaca perumusan pasal 5 ayat (1) UUD 1945, dapat kita tafsirkan bahwa kekuasaan membentuk Undang-undang itu ada di tangan Presiden, sedangkan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat mempunyai fungsi memberikan persetujuan dalam arti menerima atau menolak setiap rancangan Undang-undang yang diajukan oleh presiden.

Adapun maksud dari perkataan bersama-sama dalam penjelasan pasal 5 ayat (1) UUD 1945, Presiden dalam menjalankan legislative power, yakni dalam hal pembentukan undang-undang, Presidenlah yang melaksanakan pembentukannya, sedangkan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat melaksanakan (pemberian) persetujuannya dengan berbarengan, serentak, bersama-sama. Dengan demikian, menjadi jelas kewenangan pembentukan Undang-undang tetap pada Presiden, dan kewenangan pemberian persetujuan tetap pada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat. Agar undang-undang itu dapat terbentuk, kedua kewenangan tersebut dialksanakan bersama-sama, berbarengan, serentak.

 

b.       Presiden tidak bertangungjawab kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat

 

Dalam membentuk Undang-undang (Gesetzgebung) dan untuk menetapkan Anggaran Pendapatan dan Belanja Negara (Staatsbegroting), Presiden harus mendapat persetujuan dari Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat. Oleh karena itu, Presiden harus bekerja bersama-sama dengan DPR, akan tetapi Presiden tidak bertanggung jawab kepada DPR, artinya kedudukan Presiden tidak tergantung pada DPR.Namun, meskipun Presiden tidak bertanggung jawab kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, kekuasaan Presiden tidak tak terbatas, karena ia bertanggung jawab kepada Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat dan juga harus mmperhatikan dengan sungguh-sungguh suara Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.

 

 

 

 

 

2.1.2. Sesudah Amandemen Ke-4

 

Pasal 5

(1)     Presiden berhak mengajukan rancangan undang-undang kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.

(2)     Presiden menetapkan peraturan pemerintah untuk menjalankan undang-undang sebagaimana mestinya.

 

 

Ketentuan ini menggambarkan terjadinya pergeseran kekuasaan legislatif dari tangan Presiden. Sebelumnya, Presidenlah yang memegang kekuasaan membentuk undang-undang dengan persetujuan DPR. Sekarang, kekuasaan membentuk Undang-undang berdasarkan pasal 20 ayat (1) baru, justru berada di Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, sedangkan dalam ayat di atas, Presiden hanya dinyatakan berhak mengajukan RUU kepada DPR.

 

Pada masa lalu sebelum UUD 1945 diamandemen, kekuasan presiden sangatlah besar. Bahkan dalam hal pembentukan undang-undang yang merupakan wilayah kewenangan dari lembaga legislatif, peran pemerintah sangat kuat, sehingga DPR kerap dijuluki sebagai institusi cap stempel ( rubberstamp ) pemerintah.

 

Pembatasan kekuasaan presiden dan wewenang DPR seperti yang tercantum dalam Amandemen Keempat UUD 1945 penulis nilai sudah sesuai karena DPR sekarang memiliki hak untuk memberikan pertimbangan, sehingga tidak ada kekuasaan prerogatif yang terlalu besar pada presiden. 

 

Pergeseran ini penulis nilai juga sebagai pembatasan dan pencegahan dari tindakan sewenang-wenang presiden dalam membentuk undang-undang. Dengan adanya amandemen ini, maka yang dapat Presiden lakukan hanyalah mengajukan rancangan undang-undang kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, bukan berhak membentuk undang-undang. Hal ini juga dikaitkan kepada negara Indonesia yang merupakan negara demokrasi, dimana aspirasi rakyat sangat dijunjung tinggi, dan DPR merupakan sarana perwujudan aspirasi rakyat Indonesia, sehingga pembentukkan undang-undang harus lebih mementingkan suara dan aspirasi rakyat daripada keinginan Kepala Negara semata.

 

 

 

2.2. Analisa Perbandingan Kewenangan Pemerintah Daerah

 

2.2.1. Sebelum Amandemen

 

Pasal 18

Pembagian daerah Indonesia atas daerah besar dan kecil, dengan bentuk susunan pemerintahannya ditetapkan dengan undang-undang, dengan memandang dan mengingati dasar permusyawaratan dalam sistem pemerintahan negara, dan hak-hak asal-usul dalam daerah-daerah yang bersifat istimewa.

 

Pada Penjelasan Pasal 18 UUD 1945 dinyatakan bahwa oleh karena Negara Indonesia itu suatu “een heidstaat”, maka Indonesia tak akan mempunyai daerah di lingkungannya yang bersifat “staat” juga. Daerah Indonesia akan dibagi dalam daerah Propinsi dan daerah propinsi dibagi juga ke dalam daerah yang lebih kecil. Daerah-daerah itu bersifat autonom, semuanya menurut aturan yang akan ditetapkan undang-undang. Di daerah-daerah yang bersifat autonom akan diadakan badan perwakilan daerah, oleh karena di daerahpun pemerintahan akan bersendi atas dasar permusyawaratan.

 

Mengenai Pemerintahan Daerah sebelum amandemen, pada pasal 18 UUD 1945 hanya menjelaskan mengenai adanya pembagian daerah-daerah di Indonesia yang susunan pemerintahannya ditetapkan undang-undang, serta adanya daerah-daerah yang bersifat otonom, tanpa menjelaskan kewenangan Pemerintah Daerah dalam menetapkan peraturan daerah dan peraturan-peraturan lain untuk melaksanakan otonomi dan  tugas pembantuan (medebewind).

 

2.2.2. Sesudah Amandemen Ke-4

 

Pasal 18

(6) Pemerintah daerah berhak menetapkan peraturan daerah dan peraturan-peraturan lain  untuk melaksanakan otonomi dan tugas pembantuan.

 

 

Sesudah Amandemen ke-4, mengenai Pemerintahan Daerah diatur lebih rinci lagi serta ditambahkan ayat-ayat baru mengenai Pemerintahan Daerah tersebut. Dalam Pasal 18 ayat (6) UUD 1945 dinyatakan bahwa Pemerintah Daerah mempunyai kewenangan untuk menetapkan peraturan daerah dan peraturan-peraturan lain untuk melaksanakan otonomi dan tugas pembantuan.

 

Yang dimaksud dengan “Peraturan Daerah dan peraturan-peraturan lain” disini adalah Peraturan Daerah dan Peraturan Daerah dan Peraturan pelaksanaannya, sepertu Keputusan Gubernur dan Keputusan Bupati/Walikota. Tentang Peraturan Daerah sendiri, berdasarkan Ketetapan MPR No.II/MPR/2000, mencangkup pengertin Peraturan Daerah Provinsi, Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten/Kota, dan Peraturan Desa. Disamping itu, dengan ditetapkannya Undang-undang tentang Daerah Otonomi Khusus Provinsi Papua, maka di Provinsi ini, selain adanya Peraturan Daerah Provinsi (Perdasi), diperkenanlkan pula adanya Peraturan Daerah Khusus (Perdasus) sebagai nomenklatur yang dipakai untuk melaksanakan atau mengatur dan menjabarkan lebih lanjut materi ketentuan Undang-undang tentang Otonomi Khusus tersebut.

 

 

2.3. Perbandingan Kewenangan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat dalam Pembentukan Peraturan Per Undang-Undangan

 

2.3.1. Sebelum Amandemen

Pasal 20

(1)     Tiap-tiap undang-undang menghendaki persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.

(2)     Jika sesuatu rancangan undang-undang tidak mendapat persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, maka rancangan tadi tidak boleh dimajukan lagi dalam persidangan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat masa itu.

(3)     Jika rancangan undang-undang itu tidakmendapat persetujuan bersama, rancangan undang-undang itu tidak boleh diajukan lagi dalam persidangan Dewan Perwakilan rakyat masa itu.

(4)     Presiden mengesahkan rancangan undang-undang yang telah disetujui bersama untuk menjadi undang-undang.

(5)     Dalam hal rancangan undang-undang yang telah disetujui bersama tersebut tidak disahkan oleh presiden dalam waktu tiga puluh hari semenjak rancangan undang-undang tersebut disetujui, rancangan undang-undang tersebut sah menjadi undang-undang dan wajib diundangkan.

 

Dalam Amandemen Keempat UUD 1945 ini terlihat bahwa kekuasaan membuat UU sangat legislative heavy , dalam artian ada satu pasal yang mengatakan bahwa kalau dalam 30 hari rancangan undang-undang tidak ditandatangani presiden maka akan diberlakukan, akan tetapi tidak ada pasal yang menyatakan sebaliknya. Dalam Amandemen Keempat UUD 1945 tidak terdapat pasal yang mengatakan bahwa kalau Presiden mengajukan RUU, dalam 30 hari tidak disetujui parlemen, maka akan jadi UU. Dengan demikian hak vetonya hanya dimiliki oleh parlemen dan tidak oleh presiden.

 

Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat pemberi persetujuan kepada tuap Rancangan Undang-undang. Apabila kita melihat isi Pasal 5 ayat (1) UUD 1945 dan Penjelasannya, serta uraian pada huruf D, maka pertanyaan selanjutnya yang dimaksud mengenai dengan persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat adalah, dalam hal ini setiap rancangan undang-undang dari pemerintah itu tidak boleh dikesampingkan; Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat haruslah memberikan suu consent atau suatu kesepakatan dalam arti menolak atau menerima rancangan undang-undang tersebut. Dengan demikian, perkataan dengan persetujuan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat itu seharusnya diartikan dengan kesepakatan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat atau dengan persesuaian Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat.

 

2.3.2. Sesudah Amandemen Ke-4

 

Pasal 20

(1)     Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat memegang kekuasaan membentuk undan-undang.

(2)     Setiap rancangan undang-undang dibahas oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat dan Presiden untuk mendapat persetujuan bersama.

(3)     Jika rancangan undang-undang itu tidak mendapat persetujuan bersama, rancangan undang-undang itu tidak boleh diajukan lagi dalam persidangan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat masa itu.

 

Dengan adanya perubahan ini, jelaslah bahwa kekuasaan legislatif yang semula utamanya dipegang oleh Presiden dengan persetujuan DPR, dialihkan dan dipegang oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat. Sedangkan Presiden hanya dinyatakan baerhak mengajukan RUU, bukan sebagai pemegang kekuasaan legislatif yang utama. Perubahan ini merupakan pergeseran kekuasaan legislatif dari Presiden dan DPR.

Pada pasal 20 ayat (1) UUD 1945 ditentukan bahwa setiap rancangan Undang-undang dibahas oleh DPR dan Presiden untuk mendapat persetujuan bersama. Artinya, RUU yang bersangkutan dapat saja dibahas sendiri-sendiri oleh DPR dan oleh Presiden secara terpisah, asalkan keduanya sama-sama dapat memberikan persetujuan terhadap RUU tersebut. Konseuensi penafsiran demikian ini tetntu dapat mempengaruhi prosedur pembahasan RUU yang diatur dalam peraturan tata-tertib DPR-RI. Jika RUU diajukan atas inisiatif pemerintah, maka pembahasan oleh DPR dapat dilakukan dengan menghkadirkan wakil pemerintah sebagai utusan Presiden untuk didengarkan keterangan atau penjelasannya berkenaan dengan materi usulan RUU yang bersangkutan. Akan tetapi, kedudukan wakil dalam forum DPR itu tentu bukan merupakan subjek yang mengambil keputusan. Jika dilakukan pemungutan suara, wakil pemerintah hanya dijadkan nara sumber yang tidak ikut memberikan suara. Jika wakil pemerintah mempunyai kepentingan maka kepentingan atau aspirasinya itu haruslah disalurkan melalui anggota DPR yang berasal dari partai pemerintah. Jika RUU yang bersangkutan adalh RUU inisiatif DPR, pembahasannya dilakukan sepenuhnya oleh DPR. Setelah RUU tersebut disetujui oleh Rapat Paripurna DPR, dan RUU tersebut diajukan kepada Presiden, barulah diadakan rapat bersama antara DPR dan wakil pemerintah. Akan tetapi dalam forum rapat bersama ini pihak yang berhadapan adalah DPR sebagai institusi dengan pemerintah sebagai institusi. Karena itu, DPR sudah menjadi satu suara yang berhadapan dengan pemerintah yang tidak dapat lagi memanfaatkan anggota DPR yang berasal dari partai pemerintah. Perbedaan pendapat diantara DPR dan pemerintah dalam hal ini bisa saja memakan waktu, tergantung pada perkembangan dukungan opini umum dalam masyarakat. Namun, secara hukum, pemerintah dapat saja menolak, menyetujui sebagian ataupun seluruh materi RUU tersebut, meskipun seluruh anggota DPR telah menyetujui RUU yang bersangkutan. Dengan perkataan lain, sebelum RUU yang bersangkutan disetujui bersama oleh Presiden dan DPR, terlebih dahulu dapat dilakukan pembahasan :

(b)                  perancangan RUU secara sendiri-sendiri oleh Presiden/pemerintah atau oleh DPR,

(c)                  pembahasan oleh pemerintah terhadap RUU yang diajukan oleh DPR, pembahasan oleh DPR terhadap RUU yang diajukan oleh Pemerintah/Presiden,

(d)                  pembahasan bersama oleh institusi DPR sebagai satu kesatuan berhaapan dengan pemerintah dalam hal RUU tersebut berasal dari inisiatif DPR, atau

(e)                  pembahsan bersama antar anggota DPR bersama-sama dengan wakil pemerintah sebagai narasumber dalam hal RUU tersebut berasal dari inisiatif pemerintah[15]  

 

Pasal 20 ayat (3) UUD 1945 menegaskan bahwa :

(a)     Suatu RUU dapat saja tidak mendapat persetujuan bersama antara DPR dan pemerintah. Misalnya, pemerintah dapat menyatakan menolak untuk memberikan persetujan terhadap suatu materi atau seluruh materi yang bersangkutan. Demikian pula DPR dapat menyatakan menolak sebagian atau seluruh materi RUU yang diajukan oleh pemerintah, meskipun hal itu telah diadakan pembahasan bersama yang bertujuan mendapatkan persetujuan bersama;

(b)     RUU yang tidak mendapat persetujuan bersama tersebut, baik yang berasal dari inisiatif pemerintah ataupun inisiatif DPR, tidak dapat lagi dimajukan dalam masa persidangan yang bersangkutan. Hal ini dimasudkan untuk menjamin jangan sampai jadwal ketatanegaraan terganggu karenanya.

 

Pengesahan yang dimaksudkan Pasal 20 ayat (4) UUD 1945 bersifat administratif, yaitu pengundangan Undang-undang tersebut kedalam Lembaran Negara dan Tambahan Lembaran Negara yang menentukan efek pengumuman hukum (publication and promulgation of the law) dan daya ikat atau efektifitas legalitas undang-undang tersebut bagi para subjek hukum diaturnya.

 

Pasal 20 ayat (5) UUD 1945 menegaskan bahwa :

(a)                             Presiden tidak boleh menolak kewajiban untuk mengundangkan RUU yang telah mendapat persetujuan bersama itu (pengesahan materiel) untuk mengesahkannya secara formil-administratif menjadi UU;

(b)                             Pengundangan itu

 

2.2.3. Sebelum amandemen

Pasal 21

(1)      Anggota-anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat berhak memajukan rancangan undang-undang.

(2)      Jika rancangan itu, meskipun disetujui oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, tidak disahkan oleh Presiden, maka rancangan tadi tidak boleh dimajukan lagi dalam persidangan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat masa itu.

 

Dalam pasal 21 (1) UUD 1945 hanya disebutkan bahwa anggota DPR berhak mengajukan Rancangan Undang-undang. Kata “berhak” dalam pasal ini menganding arti dua pilihan, yaitu boleh atau mungkin tidak bersedia, yang kesemuanya tergantung kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat. Di sini sama sekali tidak ada keharusan.

 

Presiden berdasarkan Pasal 21 ayat (2) diberikan hak untuk menolak suatu rancangan undang-undang yang telah disetujui oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat. Penolakan ini dikatakan bahwa Presiden mempunyai kekuasaan semacam hak veto. Sebenarnya, Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat sendiri berhak untuk menolak Rancangan Undang-Undang yang diajukan oleh Presiden. Dalam setiap Rancangan Undang-Undang, kedua lembaga ini bekerja sama dilandasi musyawarah mufakat. Musyawarah inilah yang menyebabkan setiap perbedaan pendapat antara Presiden dan Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat diselesaikan dengan dilandasi sikap toleransi.

 

Dalam pasal 21 ayat (2) UUD 1945 yang menetapkan bahwa setiap rancangan Undang-undang yang tealh disetujui oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat memerlukan pengesahan Presiden untuk menjadi Undang-undang, menempatkan Presiden pada posisi yang lebih kuat dari pada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat. Jika Presiden menolak untuk mengesahkan suatu RUU  berarti bahwa RUU itu tidak menjadi Undang-undang. Hingga sekarang, belum dapat diketemukan suatu rancangan Undang-undang yang telah disetujui oleh Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat yang ditolak pengesahannya oleh Presiden. Karena itu, maka fungsi Pasal 21 ayat (2) UUD 1945 hanya sebagai legalitas saja, bahwa sahnya suatu undang-undang ialah karena undang-undang itu telah ditandatangani oleh Presiden selaku kepala legislatif dalam sistem pemerintahan presidensiil yang dianut oleh UUD 1945.

 

 

2.2.4. Sesudah Amandemen Ke-4

 

Pasal 21

 

        Anggota Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat berhak mengajukan usul rancangan undang-undang.

 

Pasal ini secara tegas menjamin bahwa anggot DPR menurut syarat-syarat yang diatur dalam peraturan tata tertib dapat mengambil imisiatif untuk mengusulkan suatu rancangan undang-undang. Dengan demikian, inisiatif anggota Dewan tidak boleh lagi dihambat hanya karena fraksi partai politiknya tidak menghendaki sesuatu ketentuan diajukan menjadi rancangan undang-undang.

 

 

2.4. Perbandingan Kewenangan Dewan Perwakilan Daerah dalam     Pembentukan Peraturan Per Undang-Undangan

 

Pasal 22 D

(1)     Dewan Perwakilan Daerah dapat mengajukan kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat rancangan undang-undang yang berkaitan dengan otonomi daerah, hubungan pusat dan daerah, pembentukan dan pemekaran serta penggabungan daerah, pengelolaan sumber daya alam dan sumber daya ekonomi lainnya serta yang berkaitan dengan perimabngan keuangnan pusat dan daerah.

(2)     Dewan Perwakilan Daerah ikut membahas rancangan undang-undang yang berkaitan dengan otonomi daerah; hubungan pusat dan daerah; pembentukan, pemekaran, dan pengganbungan daerah; pengelolaan sumber daya alam dan sumber daya ekonomi lainnya, serta perimbangan keuangan pusat dan daerah; serta memberikan pertimbangan kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat atas rancangan undang-undang anggaran pendapatan dan belanja Negara dan rancangan undang-undang yang berkaitan dengan pajak, pendidikan dan agama.

 

Pada pokoknya, cabang kekuasaan legislatif berada di tangan DPR. Namun, sejauh menyangkut kepentingan daerah, seperti yang terkait dengan hal-hal yang disebut dalam pasal 22 D ayat (1) UUD 1945, maka DPD diberi hak inisiatif untuk mengajukan rancangan undang-undang. Akan tetapi, rancangan undang-undang itu tetap harus diajukan kepada DPR sebagai pemegang kekuasaan legislatif yang utama. Karena itu, bisa dikatakan keberadaan DPD hanyalah bersifat ’suplemen’.

 

Dalam pembahasan terhadap rancangan undang-undang yang disebut dalam Pasal 22D ayat (2) UUD 1945, baik atas inisiatif DPD, DPR ataupun atas inisiatif pemerintah, dilakukan oleh DPR dengan melibatkan peran serta anggota DPD. Tentu saja, berkenaan dengan prosedur pembahasan bersama ini masih harus diatur dalam Peraturan Tata Tertib, apakah persidangannya diadakan bersifat gabungan antara DPR dan DPD atau sendiri-sendiri sehingga pengertian pembahasan bersama atau ikut membahas dalam ayat ini dapat terpenuhi.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

KESIMPULAN

 

Dengan diadakannya Amandemen Keempat UUD 1945 telah membawa banyak sekali perubahan terhadap kewenangan lembaga-lembaga negara dalam pembentukan peraturan perundang-undangan. Hal ini dapat dilihat dengan adanya pergeseran kekuasaan legislatif dari Presiden ke DPR. Sebelum amandemen, Presiden memegang kekuasaan membentuk undang-undang. Setelah adanya Amandemen keempat, Presiden hanya berhak mengajukan rancangan undang-undang kepada DPR untuk disetujui DPR. Kini, Dewan Perwakilan Rakyatlah yang memegang kekuasaan membentuk Undang-undang, sesuai pasal 20 UUD 1945.

 

Lalu pada pasal 18 ayat (6) dinyatakan bahwa Pemerintah Daerah berhak menetapkan peraturan daerah dan peraturan-peraturan lain untuk melaksanakan otonomi dan tuags pembantuan. Mengenai Dewan Perwakilan Daerah kini telah diatur dalam Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 dalam Pasal 22 c dan Pasal 22 D, dimana dinyatakan bahwa Dewan Perwakilan Daerah dapat mengajukan kepada Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat rancangan undang-undang yang berkaitan dengan otonomi daerah, pembentukan dan pemekaran serta penggabungan daerah, pengelolaan sumber daya alam dan sumber daya ekonomi lainnya serta yang berkaitan dengan perimbangan keuangan pusat dan daerah. Dewan perwakilan Daerah juga ikut membahas rancangan undang-undang yang berkaitan dengan otonomi daerah, pembentukan, pemekaran, dan penggabungan daerah, pengelolaan sumber daya alam dan sumber daya ekonomi lainnya, serta perimbangan keuangan pusat dan daerah, serta memberikan pertimbangan kepada PDR atas rancangan undang-undang APBN dan RUU yang berkaitan dengan pajak, pendidikan dan agama. Amandemen keempat penulis nilai membawa banyak sekali perubahan, terutama dengan adanya pergeseran kekuasaan legislatif dari Presiden ke DPR, dan diaturnya mengenai DPD dalam UUD 1945.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

 

 

Kusnardi, Moh.,S.H. dan Ibrahim, Harmaily, S.H. Pengantar Hukum Tata Negara Indonesia. Pusat Studi Hukum Tata Negara. 1983

 

Soeprapto, Maria Farida Indrato, S.H., M.H. Ilmu Perundang Undangan Dasar-Dasar dan Pembentukannya. Penerbit Kanisius. Yogyakarta: 1998.

 

Asshiddiqie, Prof.DR. Jimly, SH. Konsolidasi Naskah UUD 1945 Setelah Perubahan Keempat., hal.29.

 

Tim Redaksi Fokus Media. UUD’45 dan Amandemennya. Fokus Media. Bandung : 2004.

 

 Internet  “tentang ilmu negara”

 

 

 

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